Introduction to Routing and Switching Essay

1. Introduction – Computer Network A computer network is a setup which comprises of multiple computers and devices to create connection in order to support the communication of all such devices. This facilitates sharing of information and resources to all the users present in the network. The following are the main purposes that the network provides to its users:  · Communication- networks allow free flow of communication among all the users. These include chat, messages, emails, conferences, etc.  · Sharing of Resources – Resources can be shared among all the users within a network. These include: o Hardware – The different computers in a network can also make use of a single hardware attached to the network. Consider the example of a shared printer attached to multiple devices in the network like in case of a university or office environment. o Software- Network also allows users to share software application programs through their computers o Files and other data – Files and data can be shared among systems in a network environment through authorized access. This helps members to work and submit tasks on the same domain and within deadlines, thus saving from hassles. 2. The Open Systems Interconnection OSI Model The hardware components of the network operate at the layers of the OSI model which are briefly discussed below: Physical layer This is concerned with the functions that carry a stream of bits over a physical medium at the mechanical and electrical level. Hubs and Repeaters operate at the physical layer of the OSI model. Data link Layer This layer categorizes data from network layer (upper layer) into frames and handles errors of the physical layer to provide to the network layer. The Bridges operate at the Data link layer of the OSI Model. Network Layer The delivery of the packet is the responsibility of the network layer which can include multiple links. Network layer can be used in cases of multiple networks where there are some links between the networks. Routers operate at the Network layer of the OSI model. Transport Layer The transport layer is also responsible for delivery of packets but it also recognizes relationship between messages. This is done in proper order and the layer also ensures control of error and flow at the source as well as the destination. Session Layer This layer controls dialog and synchronizes interaction within the network. Presentation Layer This layer is also one of the most important layers as it is looks into the syntax and semantics of the data being transferred within the network. Application Layer This layer involves interfaces and other supporting frames for the user to access the network. 3. Hardware Components within a Network The following re the basic hardware components within a network to interconnect devices (Sosinsky 33): 3.1 Network Interface Cards (NICs) These are the components used to connect to another networking medium. The NIC has a unique identification number known as Media Access Control address (MAC address) that is provided by the manufacturer. 3.2 Repeaters Repeater is a device used to transmit signals after cleaning them by regenerating the original bit pattern. 3.3 Hubs Hub connects multiple devices in the network so that they appear as a single device, therefore, it has multiple ports. 3.4 Bridges These are also hardware components that connect multiple segments of the network. 4. Network Hardware Components – Routers and Switches Routers and switches are important components of the computer network that support the above mentioned purpose of a network. These are discussed in details as under: 4.1 Routers Router is a software or device that helps in transmitting data between users in a predefined manner, thus helping in serving the purpose of the network. The data is in the form of packets that travels along the network, where the routers process the data present in the packet. In many cases there is a pre-defined forwarding or routing table used to direct the information to the appropriate destination (Beasley 62). The main tasks of the routers include:  · Ensures information forwarding to the required destination  · Keeps track and avoids information from reaching where not needed 4.1.1 Characteristics The following are the characteristics of Routers:  · The routers correspond to internet Protocols such as the internet Protocol, internet Control message Protocol, etc.  · Provides interfaces between the packet networks through the required functions  · Sends and receives datagrams  · Chooses destination for the datagram according to the routing database  · Provides support facilities for network management which includes status and exception reporting, debugging, etc. 4.1.2 Routing Routing is the process of sharing information by connecting networks and translating protocols between them. It functions at the network layer of the OSI model, acquiring addresses from the IP header of the layer to get the sources and destination. Here the Routing Protocols are used. Routers also use the routing tables to decide the destination of the packets. The routing tables include:  · Address information  · Connection Priorities  · Traffic Rules Routing differs in its delivery schemes which include the following:  · Delivery to a single node (unicast) where the node is predefined.  · Delivery to multiple specified nodes (multicast)  · Delivery to all the nodes that are part of the network (Broadcast)

The Pop

1 Mixtures and Solutions: Candy Chromotography Background Information and Research Biochemists often use this method of separation when studying amino acids or other chemicals from living things. Also they use it to separate a solution with multiple components with different polarites. People use chromoography to find the things in milk,find out what chemicals are in black ink, also determine whether something is hazardous or not. Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to see what kind of dyes and colors are in the candy’s colored coating. Also to see what kind of things are in it. Materials: Candy with a colored coating, like Skittles ® or M&Ms ® (4 different colors) †¢ Rubbing alcohol or isopropyl alcohol †¢ Coffee filters (2) †¢ Tall glasses or plastic cups (2) †¢ Pencil †¢ Ruler †¢ Tape †¢ Foil or paper plate †¢ Table salt †¢ Water †¢ Toothpicks or cotton swabs (4) †¢ Measuring cups/spoons †¢ Clean pitcher or 2-liter bottle Procedure: 1. Coffee filters usually are round, but it's easier to compare your results if the paper is square. So your first task is to cut the coffee filter into a square measuring three cm by nine cm square from a coffee filter. You will need two of these strips to complete the lab. 2. Space four drops of water (or however many colors you are testing) equally distant on a piece of foil or plate. Position one candy of each color on the drops. Give the color about a minute to come off into the water. Dispose of the candy. 3. Using a pencil (do not use a pen), draw a line one cm (1/2 inch) from the edge of one end of one strip of paper. 4. Make four pencil dots (one for each color of candy you will be examining) along this line, about 0. cm (1/4 inch) apart. Underneath each dot, label the color of the candy you will test on that spot. You won't have space to write the whole color name, so try abbreviations like B for blue, G for green, etc. 5. Before you complete the rest of the lab, make a prediction of the components you expect to see from each candy color. 6. Dip a toothpick or cotton swab into one sample of colored water and dab the color onto the pencil dot for that color. Use a clean toothpick for each co lor. Try to keep each dot as small as possible. Allow the filter paper to dry, and then go back and add more color to each dot, repeating this step a total of three times for each color. 7. Prepare the salt solution by mixing 1/8 teaspoon of salt and three cups of water in a clean pitcher or 2-liter bottle. Stir or shake the solution until it is dissolved. This will produce a 1% salt solution. 8. Pour the salt solution into a clean tall glass so that the liquid level is 1/4 inch (0. 5 cm). 9. Tape the strip to a pencil and rest the pencil on top of the jar so that the strip hangs into the jar. The goal is to have the end of the chromatography strip just touching the surface of the solvent solution, with the colored dots above the surface of the liquid. Make sure that the colored spots do not come in direct contact with the liquid in the bottom of the glass. 10. Capillary action will draw the salt solution up the paper. As it passes through the dots, it will begin to separate the dyes. When the salt water is 1/4 inch (0. 5 cm) from the top edge of the paper, remove it from the glass and place it on a clean, flat surface to dry. 11. Repeat steps two through nine (using the second strip of paper and a clean glass) to test the same four colors using the alcohol instead of the saltwater solution at the bottom of the glass. Data and Observations Original Predictions: †¢ The red M&M will travel the farthest and be the strongest. †¢ The The dye in the yellow M&M will travel less and be the lightest color. †¢ [pic] Other observations I noticed was the stationary phase matters. Both the red and yellow travveld to the front but had little separation. Red showed the lowest travelling distance. Discussion and Conclusion: The first part of this section discusses the observations and results of the lab as well as any mistakes that may have been made (or what measures were taken to try to avoid mistakes) and what improvements, if any, you can think of for the procedure for the next time the lab will be conducted. The discussion section of this lab should also include discussions on the following: †¢ A comparison of how each solution (salt water and alcohol) separated the pigments from each color of candy or ink type. Which solution worked better at separating each of the pigments (it may be different for different candy colors or inks), and why do you think that is? †¢ If you had allowed less time for the lab (stopping the separation process when the solution was half way up the paper) how do you think that would have affected your results? †¢ What pigment colors traveled farther up the paper? What pigment traveled the least? Was it the same or different when those pigments appeared in other candy colors or inks? Was it the same or different when separated by alcohol instead of salt water?

Balanced Scorecard Essay

A balanced scorecard is very helpful to any organization and should be viewed as a very important document throughout the company. Wal-Mart has developed a scorecard so that their customers can see what goals that the company wants to achieve and also how to achieve those goals. If you look at the scorecard on a regular basis, then you will know exactly how your company is running and what areas you need to work on. Wal-Mart wants everyone to know where to look at their scorecard and how to achieve the goals that they feel will make them even more successful. Wal-Mart also expects that every employee should follow this scorecard to guarantee they are doing the right things to make the company grow even faster and stronger than they already are (Balanced Scorecard Basics, 2014). The financial part is a very important part to Wal-Mart. With this part being successful you will be able to pay all the employees the right amount and also pay all the bills so that the company can make more money and keep thriving in the world today. Also with the financials down, the shareholders will see an increase in the amount of what the shares are selling for and that lets them know what they are making for owning those shares in the company. A competitive position is a major key within a huge retail chain like Wal-Mart. They are number one compared to other store chains similar to them. They continue building stores all over the world while a lot of the competitors keep shutting their stores down. Staying atop of this list is what makes Wal-Mart the leader in general merchandising stores (Wal-Mart Stores, 2013). Another major area of a balanced scorecard is how the customers see what Wal-Mart is doing. This is the most important part other than the  financials but work hand in hand with the financials. If the customers see Wal-Mart as a bad company then they will not buy the items that Wal-Mart is selling and then Wal-Mart will not be able to afford their bills and payroll and eventually have to close down. If they see Wal-Mart as a great place to shop then they will tell everyone that they know to shop there and that will make the revenue rise and make more profit for the company so that they can become even more successful in the future. The customers perspective always pays a big role in any company, if you keep them happy, then the will spend more money and time and energy with your company instead of your competitors (Balanced Scorecard Basics, 2014). Innovation is what you need to do to improve the company and learn how to grow and become a stronger economy. Wal-Mart is trying to be innovative in how they get their ads out to the general public. They are starting to email adds out to individuals emails letting their customers know of great deals and opportunities that are coming up in the local stores (Balanced Scorecard Basics, 2014). They are also developing an app for the smart phones of today with the deals and specials going on within the company. They are trying to get their products and service out in the community. Last but not least are the internal methods. They look at areas they think they will excel in and also the areas that will not excel so much at. The areas that Wal-Mart plans to excel at are usually the electronics. They look at other ideas to help them excel even more than usually and develop a plan to implement how to excel further in these areas. The Ares that are weak, they look for reasons that they are weak and how can they implement a plan to make those areas excel in also. When they can get all the areas in the store to excel greatly then they will become very successful and continue to grow beyond measure. This paper has demonstrated how a strategic plan of a balanced scorecard can help any company grow to a different standard. With these scorecard in effect and followed out completely then any company will succeed in everything that they want to do and become very successful. References Wal-Mart Stores. (2013, November 6). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from Forbes. Balanced Scorecard Basics. (2014). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from Balanced Scorecard INstitute: https://balancedscorecard.org/Resources/AbouttheBalancedScorecard/tabid/55/Default.aspx

Assignment 3 - individual written format business report an

3 - individual written format business report an organization i would like to work for - Assignment Example BCG has been consistently maintained a top five positions over the years as the best organization. Recently they were ranked third by the fortunes magazine’s 2014 list of â€Å"top 100 companies to work for† (12). There is a lot that goes on before one gets hired at BCG since the expectations are always high, but the experience is just phenomenal. The organization may be small in size, but it casts a relatively large shadow amongst its competitors, mainly McKinsey. This has in turn attracted many admirers in the business world who tend to compare themselves to BCG even though it is a consulting firm. The competition is intense at the organization; an insider says that the organization hires approximately one candidate in over 200 applicants for an associate position. The main secret to the rampant success at BCG has been mainly gaining good strategy projects that require planning and hard work as compared to implementation only. New ideas are highly appreciated in the company. This gives the organization varied approaches to tackle business hurdles. The organization had its downfall in business; in 2001, the global revenue hit a downfall as technological explosion ventured in the business. The event resulted to layoffs, and the organization had to reduce its support staff as well as consulting by 12 percent (WetFeet 38). The strategies employed by BCG may be seen as small, but they have long term solutions to business problems. This has enabled the organization to stay top of its competitors like McKinsey and Bain, even if BCG has less staff compared to the two. Intellectualism has always stood up as the best culture for the organization over the decades. An insider describes the company’s growth as just incredible. At one point, he says he used to know almost everyone in the offices but now there are very many people that he can hardly identify with (WetFeet 36). Despite having all the success and growth, the

Allocation of Costs Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Allocation of Costs - Coursework Example For the pharmacy, the allocation is arrived at using the formula: (200/80,000) x $100,000. The other departments’ share of the $100,000 maintenance supply_costs is: $ 79,800/80,000) x $ 100,000 (Finkler et al., 2013). Table 3 (Appendix section) shows the allocation of the maintenance_department administration_costs (Finkler et al., 2013). The costs are allocated using the volume of repairs output of Pharmacy department_and resources. The pharmacy department formula is: (3/800)x$15,000. The formula for the other departments’ share of the maintenance_department’s administration_costs was generated using the formula: (797/800)x15,000=$14,977.00 (Epstein, 2011). Table 5 (appendix section) shows the allocation of the maintenance_department costs (Finkler et al., 2013). The costs are allocated based on the square_feet factor. For example, the maintenance_department’s labor_cost allocated to the pharmacy department was computed using: (2,000/100,000)*192,000.00=

How does deforestation of the Amazon affect wildlife Research Paper

How does deforestation of the Amazon affect wildlife - Research Paper Example Over half of the planet’s remaining rainforest is represented by Amazon. It is one of the most bio diverse amongst all the tropical rainforests that are found in the world. Amazon contains about 40000 species of plants, 427 species of mammals, 1200 species of birds, 378 species of reptiles, 400 species of Amphibians, 3000 species of freshwater fish. Since the human settlement has begun in the area there has been rapid scale of deforestation that is going on in the area. The deforestation of Amazon has a tremendous impact on the ecosystem. The present research paper aims to find out Amazon rainforest is mostly located in the state of Brazil as it covers most of the land area of that country. There have been many factors that have led to the deforestation in that region such as agriculture and other allied activities. With least regard for the diverse Amazonian ecosystem and the aspiration of the local people the Amazonian rain forest is being rapidly degraded and the forest area rapidly cleared off with singular approach to move towards a rapid scale of economic growth and development. According to Vieira, Toledo, Silva and Higuchi the highest rate of deforestation in the Amazon rain forest occur in the area known as the deforestation arch. The deforestation arch is typically located in the east west area of the forest. They argue that the cultivation of land in the Amazon since 1960s has been characterized by violent environmental degradation which is the characteristic of frontier economics (Viera, et al 950). The degradation of the forest cover of the Amazon basin works at a pace which assumes that the natural resources are limitless and the economic growth and prosperity is based on boundless exploitation of the limitless natural resources. The researchers argue that there are several factors that have led to the rapid scale of degradation of the Amazon such as human occupation, lack of territorial planning, monoculture, introduction of exotic

Ch9 - reflectional journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ch9 - reflectional journal - Essay Example On the other hand, global climatic change and matters concerning national council can be explained by science. For this reason, students should be thought both social studies and science together so that they can relate them separately (National Research Council, 2011). How does the relation between subjects in schools help in effective teaching? Sciences have a relationship with other fields of study. Science and mathematics are two very close subjects, and one relies on the other while doing investigations. Mathematical concepts are used to calculate complicated steps in scientific investigations. It is more advantageous to both learn mathematics and science along so that one can be an effective teacher. For a student to understand some mathematical concepts like drawing of graphs, his/ her teacher should teach the student both mathematics and science together. This enables the student to relate the concepts and understand it well rather than teaching the two subject separately (National Research Council, 2011). The world is evolving daily, and new technologies are invented. For this reason, students should be thought the Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Engineering is an essential field in technological advancement, and so teachers should involve students in STEM experiments so that they can practically understand. The Next Generation Science Standards is more concerned with (STEM) since engineering is the core subject applied in the task. In conclusion, English and art are more important for a student to be taught. Enhancement of a student’s understanding requires much reading and writing and, for this reason, a teacher should have it as its first

President Barack Obama, the war power, and executive orders Essay

President Barack Obama, the war power, and executive orders - Essay Example From this paper, it is clear that executive orders are used by presidents to promote civil rights and in emboldening or discourage regulation by federal agencies. Both Presidents Barack Obama and President George W. Bush have observed that the executive order has progressively become a powerful political weapon. The executive order has been used in pushing through regulations and this may end up being a political worse crisis. President’s executive orders are derived from Article II, section 1 of the America constitution specifies that the president has the executive power "He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed†. Executive orders in my perception are controversial because the through the executive order the president can make a major critical decision. The excises executive order by presidents run against the general logic of the constitution that says clearly that no one should have the power to act unilaterally. The executive order has a drawback for it undermines the trusted system of check and balance, giving rise to unjustifiable acts by the executive branch which may use it to safeguard their personal interests rather than national interests. For this reason, executive orders are considered too inappropriate in democratic and civilized country like the United States. Therefore, it is essential for the three arms of government to acts as a watchdog of each other thus enabling democracy to triumph without being hindered by the presidency through executive orders.

The State Council as the central government plays a highly important Essay

The State Council as the central government plays a highly important role in Chinas law making process. Discuss - Essay Example The council administers the local and the international government plan and hence is a general body which holds the entire responsibility of serving the public and the country collectively1. The State Council of China is a public administration body. It is an institution which is on the highest level of administration. The members of the State Council consist of premiers, vice premiers, ministers, commissioners, general-auditors and secretary generals with a bench to form for public administration and public health service2. Security and education are part of the political system objectives and hence are covered up by the state council in respective means. All areas are under one master plan, and policies are circulated by the â€Å"State Council† for further operation. The State Council is directly connected to NPC (National People’s Congress) for passing decisions and legislation of activities. The State Council associates â€Å"National People’s Congress† and the rest of the standing committees for work order, work plan and administration3. Being on the highest level of administration, The State Council is responsible for the following functions; enactment of public level legislations, responding to top level ministries and to the local bodies, responding to commissioning authorities, formulation of social development plan, formulation of economic development plan, formulation of public health service plan, formulation of foreign policies and foreign affairs, implementing judicial legislations and vice versa4. Being a central body of command and being on top administrative function, the State Council responds with a legal way of proceeding. It applies legislative apprehensions to manage and control the governance system of the country. In China which is a Capitalist State, the law making process is under the State Council administration. This is to ensure a government system where public rights are fulfilled,

Summary of Doctor Faustus Essay Example for Free

Summary of Doctor Faustus Essay Central Conflict: Doctor Faustus is unsatisfied with the limits of traditional forms of knowledge so he decides that he wants to learn how to practice magic. With the help of his friend Valdes and Cornelius teaching him magic, he starts off his career by summoning a devil named Mephastophilis. He sends Mephastophilis back to his master, Lucifer, with the offer of his soul in exchange for 24 years of service from the devil. Mephastophilis returns with the news that Lucifer accepts Faustus’s offer. He has some doubts at first because he didn’t really know if it was worth sacrificing his soul or not, but Faustus eventually agrees to the deal and signs it with his blood. With his new powers, he decides to travel to spread his fame. He goes to Rome and plays tricks on the pope by making himself invisible and stealing food. Faustus also travels to courts of Europe and the court of the German Emperor where he made antlers sprout on the head of a knight when he scoffs at Faustus’s powers while impressing Charles V the emperor. Faustus then continues on with his trickery and plays a trick on a horse trader by selling him a horse that turns into a heap of straw when ridden into a river. Eventually, Faustus bumps into all of those of whom he had tricked at the Duke of Vanholt and casts a spell on them to send them away to amuse the duke. Right before his inevitable death, the night before the expiration of his 24-year agreement, Faustus is overcome by fear and remorse. He attempts to beg for mercy but by then it was already too late. A host of devils appear and midnight to take his soul off to hell. Protagonist: Although, this character did play a lot of tricks on many other characters in the play, I believe the protagonist is Faustus. His ambition and drive for knowledge, wealth, and power makes him willing pay the ultimate price; the sacrifice of his soul to Lucifer in exchange for supernatural power. Antagonist: I believe the antagonist is the devil, Mephastophilis. He is Lucifer’s servant and spears and handles the deal with Faustus’s soul. He threatens to transform Robin and Rafe into animals for their stupidity of summoning him. Chorus: The chorus is a bit vague in the play but there was a character that stood outside the story, providing narration and commentary. Response: The play was interesting at first but I was disappointed with how it ended because I was expecting it to have a more epic ending. I did like the little moral behind the story though. Faustus abused his powers by being cruel to everyone and playing tricks and when he begs for mercy, it was already too late. In my opinion, I think this play would be hard to pull off in a theatre setting because of all the different settings where Faustus traveled and the story plot isn’t all that interesting either.

Tourism Demand and Expenditure

Tourism Demand and Expenditure Panel data analysis has appeared in tourism demand research (Eilat and Einav, 2004; Garin-Munoz, 2007; and Naude and Saayman, 2005). The panel data models that were used in the literature are pooled logit regression, the generalized method of moments (GMM) procedure of Arellano and Bond (1991), generalised least squares (GLS) panel data regressions, and ordinary least square (OLS) panel data regressions (which comprise of fixed and random effects models). Panel data analysis has some advantages over the time series econometric models. It incorporates much richer information from both time series and cross sectional data. This approach also reduces the problem of multicollinearity and provides more degrees of freedom in the model estimation. Therefore, it is suitable for forecasting the demand for tourism when the time series for all variables are shorter, and cross-sectional information on these variable are also available. In spite of its advantages, the panel data approach has rare ly been applied to tourism demand analysis. Four exceptions are found in the post-2000 literature. Ledesma-Rodrà ­guez and Navarro-Ibà ¡nez (2001) used the panel data method to model the demand for Tenerife tourism and established both static and dynamic panel models. In addition, Naudà © and Saayman (2005) and Roget and Gonzà ¡lez (2006) both employed the same panel data approach to examine demand for tourism in 43 African countries and the demand for rural tourism in Galicia, Spain, respectively. Dependent variable Selecting a suit variable for dependent variable in tourism demand model is important. Gang le et al (2006) in a study as: Recent Developments in Econometric Modeling and Forecasting with comparing tourism demand models indicates that Compared to tourism demand studies prior to 1990, the measures of tourism demand have not changed much. Tourist arrivals were still the most common measure in the last decade, followed by the tourist expenditure. In particular, tourist expenditure, in the form of either absolute values or budget shares, is required by the specification of demand system models, such as the linear expenditure system (LES) and the AIDS. Compared with the tourism literature before 1990, recent studies pay more attention to disaggregated tourism markets by travel purpose (for example, Morley 1998; Turner et al 1998; Turner and Witt 2001a). Amongst various market segments, leisure tourism attracted the most research attention. 12 studies focused on this particular tourism mar ket (for example, Ashworth and Johnson 1990; Kulendran and Witt 2003b; Song, Romilly, and Liu 2000; Song, Witt, and Li 2003). Different market segments are associated with different influencing factors and varying decision-making processes. Therefore, studies at disaggregated levels give more precise insights into the features of the particular market segments. As a result, more specific and accurate information can be provided to develop efficient marketing strategies. Explanatory Variables Based on the tourism economic theory the arrival of tourist is an encouraging factor for another person that will be travelling to a certain destination. Therefore whatever the number of tourists arrival in the current year in a certain destination then, may be the tourist would come back to this country next year if they have had a good experience from that particular destination. In the other hand, the information about the destination extends as people share their holiday experiences with relatives and friends; therefore it can decrease the rate of uncertainty for potential visitors to that destination. According to Song, (song et al., 2003) the number of people choosing a certain destination in any year depends on the number of people that chose it in the past years. There are many studies that used the lagged dependent variable to explain the tourism demand. For example habibi(2009), Witt and Martin (1987), Fujii and Mak (1981), Garin-Munoz (2007), Garin-Munoz and Martin Montero (2007). Garin-Munoz (2007) discussed the justifications of including a lagged dependent variable in tourism demand models. Two possible justifications are provided. Firstly, there is less uncertainty associated with holidaying in a country that you are already familiar with, compared with travelling to a previously unvisited foreign country, also tourism is generally risk averse and may feel more comfortable in choosing the same previous destination country. Secondly, knowledge about the destination extends as people talk about their holiday, thus reducing the uncertainty for potential visitors to that destination. Own price: The appropriate form of the price variable is by no means clear. In the case of tourism there are two elements of price: the cost of travel to the destination; and the cost of living for the tourist in the destination. Although the theoretical justification for including transportcost as a demand determinant does not appear to be disputed, many authors exclude this variable from the set of explanatory variables on the grounds of potential multicollinearity problems and lack of data availability. (In fact, multicollinearity need not be a problem; instead, it may be a sign of cointegration, which would suggest the use of error correction models.) In certain studies where econometric forecasting models have been developed for international tourism demand, a specific destination tourists cost of living variable is incorporated in the models. Usually, however, the consumer price index in a country is taken to be a proxy for the cost of tourism in that country. In general, this procedure is adopted on the grounds of lack of more suitable data, e.g. an index defined over the basket of goods purchased by tourists, rather than over the usual typical consumer basket (Kliman, 1981, p.490). (In fact, such indices are now published for certain countries and major towns.) Whichever destination price variable is used, it needs to be adjusted by the rate of exchange in order to transform it into origin country currency. Exchange rates are also sometimes used separately to represent tourists living costs. Although they usually appear in addition to either a specific tourists cost of living variable or a consumer price index proxy, they may be the sole representation of tourists living costs. The usual justification for including an exchange rate variable in international tourism demand functions is that consumers are more aware of exchange rates than destination costs of living for tourists, and hence are driven to use exchange rate as a proxy variable (Gray, 1966; Artus, 1970). However, the use of exchange rate alone can be misleading because even though the exchange rate in a destination may become more favourable, this could be counterbalanced by a relatively high inflation rate. Empirical results evaluating the precise form of the tourists cost of living element of the own price variable which should be included in econometric forecasting models indicate that the exchange-rate-adjusted consumer price index (either alone or together with a separate exchange rate variable) is a reasonable proxy for the cost of tourism, but that exchange rate on its own is not an acceptable proxy (Martin and Witt, 1987). Substitute prices: Economic theory suggests that the prices of substitutes may be important determinants of demand. For example, an increase in holiday prices to substitute destination country may increase demand for holidays to another country. Mostly, those substitution possibilities allowed for in international tourism demand studies are restricted to tourists destination living costs. A common form in which substitute prices enter the demand function is to specify the tourists cost of living variable in the form of the destination value relative to the origin value, thus merely permitting substitution between tourist visits to the foreign destination under consideration and domestic tourism. The usual justification for this form of relative price index is that domestic tourism is the most important substitute for foreign tourism. Other studies incorporate substitute prices in a more sophisticated manner; they allow for the impact of competing foreign destinations by specifying the tourists cost of living variable as destination value relative to a weighted average value calculated for a set of alternative destinations, or by specifying a separate weighted average substitute destination cost variable.Just as tourists living costs in substitute destinations are likely to influence the demand for tourism to a given destination, so travel costs to substitute destinations may also be expected to have an impact. Furthermore, if the data are disaggregated by transport mode, then travel cost to the same destination by alternative transport mode(s) would influence tourism demand to a particular destination by a given transport mode. However, although some theoretical attention has been paid to the notion of substitute travel costs in the literature, they rarely feature in tourism demand functions. If a price variable is specified as own price elative to substitute prices, then the variable is listed generally under both own price and substitute prices in Table 1. The only exceptions are the very restrictive cases where the sole substitute destination price considered is the cost of Although travel costs had been considered in over 50% of the studies reviewed by both Crouch and Lim, in recent studies they did not attract as much attention as before, with only 24 studies including this variable. As precise measurements of travel costs were lacking, especially of the aggregate level, proxies such as airfares between the origin and the destination had to be used. However, only in a few cases did the use of proxies result in significant coefficient estimates. Another reason for insignificant effects of travel costs may be related to all inclusive tours where charter flights are often used, and Hence airfares bear little relation to published scheduled fares. The deterministic trend variable describes a steady change format, which is too restrictive to be realistic and may cause serious multicollinearity problems. With this borne in mind, recent studies have been less keen to include it in model specifications. This variable only appeared in 11 reviewed studies. To capture the effects of one-off events, dummy variables have been commonly used. The two oil crises in the 1970s were shown to have the most significant adverse impacts on international tourism demand, followed by the Gulf War in the early 1990s, and the global economic recession in the mid 1980s. Other regional events and origin/destination-specific affairs have also been taken into account in specific studies. It should be noted that no effort has been made to examine the impact of tourism supply in the tourism demand literature, which means that the problem of identification has been ignored. An implicit assumption of this omission is that the tourism sector concerned is assumed to be sufficiently small and the supply elasticity is infinite. To draw more robust conclusions with regard to demand elasticity analysis, however, this condition needs to be carefully examined in future studies. Ferda Halicioglu, (2004) in a paper as: An ARDL Model of International Tourist Flows to Turkey tries to apply a co-integration technique on the international tourist arrivals to Turkey. This study empirically examines aggregate tourism demand function for Turkey using the time series data for the period 1960-2002. The total tourist arrivals into Turkey are related to world income, relative prices and transportation cost. he employ bounds testing co-integration procedure proposed by Pesaran et al. (2001) to compute the short and long-run elasticitys of income, price, and transportation cost variables. The empirical results indicate that income is the most significant variable in explaining the total tourist arrivals to Turkey and there exists a stable tourism demand function. Maria M. De Mello et al (2005) in a study A flexible general form of a Dynamic Almost Ideal Demand System (DAIDS) is derived to analyze the UK tourism demand for its geographically proximate neighbors France, Spain and Portugal, in the period 1969-1997. The results show that DAIDS is a data coherent and theoretically consistent model, providing evidence of the robustness of this methodology to conduct tourism demand analysis in a temporal context. Moreover, the dynamic model offers statistically strong evidence on the inadequacy of the orthodox static AIDS and the other restricted models to reconcile consistently data and theory within their formulations. Estimates for tourism price and expenditure elasticitys are obtained, permitting a comparative analysis of the relative magnitudes and statistical relevance of long and short run sensitivity of the UK tourism demand to changes in its determinants. Sara A. Proenca (2005) in Demand for Tourism in Portugal: A Panel Data Approach use a panel data techniques to estimate the demand function of tourism in Portugal by considering four main countries as the basic tourism suppliers, Spain, Germany, France and the U.K., responsible for almost 90% of the total tourism inflows in this country. In the demand function she introduces both the demand factors include per capita income, relative prices and the supply factors (public investment ratio, accommodation capacity) to explain tourism performance in Portugal. The result of the estimation the models shows that per capita income is the most important demand determinant and accommodation capacity the most important supply determinant explaining thus the tourism flow in Portugal and also, the accommodation capacity is the most important factor in attracting more tourism to this country. Vani K. Borooah (1999) in the supply of hotel rooms in Queensland, Australia examines the supply decisions of hotel and motel owners with respect to guest rooms. This study employed an econometric analysis of supply responses in the hotel sector in the three Queensland regions of the Gold Coast, Whitsunday, and Cairns. The result shows that the supply of guest rooms, in all three regions, was strongly responsive to increases in earnings (per occupied room) but was less influenced by increases in the room occupancy rate or by changes in the interest rate. But the relative strengths of earnings and occupancy rates in influencing supply responses may have much to do with the aggregation of individual hotels into a single sector. Also, Increases in earnings might be a generalized phenomenon, affecting all hotels, and thus evoking a strong supply response from the hotel sector. In addition, increases in occupancy rates might be restricted to a subset of hotels, which are at the margin of being capacity- constrained, evoking a weaker response from the sector. Gonzalez and Moral (1995), in a study as the international tourism demand in Spain, try to find a precise indicator to measure the external demand of the tourist sector as one of the main problems in analyzing the potentialities is. They use tourists spending as the dependent variable, defined as the product of three factors: the number of tourists, the length of their stay and the daily average spending. Also About this subject Cunha (2001) argues that the number of entrances is not a good approximation to express tourism demand since it ignores one of the most important aspects in this sector: the demand of goods and services that tourists require during their permanence. Mello and Sinclair (2002), alternatively, use the share of tourism spending of the origin country to other destination countries to study tourism demand in the U.K. The authors argue that this variable captures the consumption behavior of the tourists and explains the spending component of this economic activity. It is possible to observe an increase in the tourism inflow accompanied by a reduction in spending explained by higher domestic inflation and shorter length of stay. For this reason the expenditure approach is preferable to the inflows approach to study the demand for tourism behavior from the point of view of the hosting country. Rodriguez and Ibanez (2001) use the number of visitors lodged in the destination country as the dependent variable to study the demand for tourism in a panel data approach. The choice of this variable to express tourism demand (in comparison with the number of tourist entrances) has the advantage to consider the length of the stay and to exclude to urists that are hosted to family or friends houses. According to the literature review, the most appropriate variable to be used as the dependent variable in the demand for tourism equation is tourism receipts from the point of view of the receiving country or tourism spending from the point of view of the supplying country (Tse, 1999; Lathiras and Siriopoulos, 1998). However, according to Crouch and Shaw (1992), almost 70% of the studies that estimated tourism demand functions have used the number of visitors (entrances) as the dependent variable (Quiand Zhand, 1995; Morris, Wilson and Bakalis, 1995; Kulendran, 1996; Akis, 1998). The main reason for this choice has been the unavailability of data on tourism spending. Naude ,W.A. A. Saayman (2004) in a paper about determination of tourism arrivals in Africa use cross-section and panel data for the period 1996 to 2000 to identify the determinants of tourism arrivals in 43 African countries, taking into account the country of origin of tourists. The results suggest that political stability, tourism infrastructure, marketing and information and the level of development in the destination are key determinants of travel to Africa. Typical developed country determinants of tourism demand, such as the level of income in the origin country, the cost of travel and the relative prices, are not that significant in explaining the demand for Africa as a tourism destination. They are recommended that attention should be given to improving the overall stability of the continent and the availability and quantity of tourism infrastructure. ONeil Malcolm (2003) in study about Tourism Maturity and Demand in Jamaica estimates a demand function for Jamaicas tourist product. An error correction model (ECM), structural time model (STM) and an autoregressive moving average (ARIMA) model were employed. The ECM was more robust than the ARIMA and STM models in predicting tourism demand. The ECM and ARIMA models captured the major turning points in the series well and provided reasonably good forecasts. In contrast to the findings of Henry and Longmore (2002), the results indicate that source country income is significant. The explanatory power of the ECM improved with the inclusion of the tourism density ratio, implying that researchers should include inter-action factors in tourism demand models. The empirical analysis indicates that Jamaica has a mature tourism product. The empirical analysis indicates that tourism demand is predominantly explained by income in source country. The absolute price, relative price and exchange ra te have very marginal, and in most cases no significant impact on tourism demand. The finding also suggests that Jamaica is a maturing destination for the USA and UK markets. Of the three models estimated the ECM was the most appropriate in explaining tourism demand. It was found that the inclusion of the tourist density ratio in the regression improved the explanatory power of the model. The unit price of the service was found to be insignificant. Smith, S. L. J. (1995) describes the challenges with describing and defining tourism. Particularly, it focuses on defining tourism as a demand-side concept from the perspective of the person taking the trip or supply-side from the perspective of the business supplying the tourism product or service. On the demand-side tourism can be classified by length of stay, type of expenditure, type of traveler, type of trip, transport mode or accommodation type. On the supply-side, the tourism industry can be classified first by whether the business and secondly by the type of tourism product such as passenger air transport, camping, recreation and entertainment. Empirical Study in Tourism Tax Base on Gooroochurn and Sinclair (2005) study that tourism taxes are welfare-enhancing since the destination country can transfer the tax to foreign tourists. They found that tax on tourism was more efficient and equitable than levying tax on other sectors in country. However, gosling peetersceron and dubois (2005) argue that destinations adopting eco-taxes on tourism may possibly suffer from welfare loss. Similarly, Jensen and Wanhill, (2002) suspect that worldwide increases in both numbers and rates of tourism taxes in recent years are not welfare-enhancing, since governments seem to consider tourism taxes as easy money, giving them license to deviate from economic rationality. The past literature includes a number of studies on the impact of tourism taxes on destinations welfare, often with controversial findings (Bird, 1992;  Clark and Ng, 1993;  Dimanche, 2003;  Forsyth and Dwyer, 2002;  Gago, Labandeira, Picos, and Rodriguez, 2009; Levine, 2003;  Litvin, Crotts, Black well, and Styles, 2006;  Mak, 1988;  Mayor and Tol, 2007;  Palmer and Riera 2003;  Ã‚  Piga, 2003). According to Corey Gerant Mathews, (2004), several sources suggest that reductions or the elimination of tourism marketing have a negative effect on travel to and revenues of the target country, On the other hand, several evidence suggest that tourism tax could support other plans in the destination country; such as: education, transportation, life guarding, zoos, and other programs and services that would also draw additional tourists to the area. Mak and Nishimura (1979) drew a conclusion in which they estimated the influence of a hotel room tax on Hawaiis tourist industry using single equation estimation approaches. They utilized cross section data on individual visitor parties, had collected by Hawaii Visitors Bureau (HBV) in 1974. Like cross section demand studies, that study was detracted from by the difficulty and imprecision in measurement of the prices.A similar conclusion was reached by Bonham, Carl and Byron Gangnes (1996) in Intervention Analysis with Co-integrated Time Series: The Case of the Hawaii Hotel Room Tax. In this article, they analyzed an intervention of a room tax levied by the state of Hawaii in 1987. In that study room tax was found not to have a noticeable statistically significant contribution to room revenues. They analyzed the ex-post effect of the room tax on revenues using a time series econometrics framework. Hailin Qu, Peng Xu, Amy Tan (2004) in a paper as A simultaneous equations model of the hotel room supply and demand in Hong Kong use a system of include demand and supply equations to identify the important factors that influence the hotel room supply and demand, and their overall impact on the Hong Kong hotel industry. In the model of tourism supply they used average hotel room rate as dependent variable. They employed 19 years of time series data in simultaneous equations econometric framework. The result of estimation of model show that the overall goodness-of-fit of both demand and supply models is very high, suggesting high predictive power. More ever, Empirical results indicate that hotel room price and tourist arrivals are significant factors driving the demand for hotel rooms. In addition, 1990-91 recession and the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis had a significant negative impact on the demand for hotel rooms in Hong Kong. At the same time, hotel room quantity demanded, room occupancy rate, last periods room price, labor cost, last periods average price of Grade A private offices, and the Asian financial crisis had a significant impact on room price in the short run. H. Tsai et al,(2006) in Examining the hotel room supply and demand in Las Vegas: A simultaneous equations model try to identify the important factors that influence the hotel room supply and demand, in Las Vegas employing econometric variables in a simultaneous framework during 1992-1999. In the model of tourism supply they used average hotel room rate as dependent variable. The results show that room rate for the current month, the 3-month Treasury bill rate and gaming revenue per room for the 12-month prior are the three determinants of the room supply function, while consumer price index for the current month is the only determinant of the room demand function. This study also employs the 2SLS technique, but tests different econometric variables in the Las Vegas context. At the beginning they modeled the empirical treatment of hotel room revenues employing a variant of the multi-input transfer function methodology developed by Box and Jenkins (Box, Jenkins and Reinsel,1994).They method extends the rudimentary transfer function model to include long term co-integration relationships between room revenues and major explanatory variables. Once an appropriate pre-intervention model has been identified, it is applied to the post-intervention sample. they model appears to provide strong evidence against any significant permanent effect of the room tax on either the level or growth rate of after-tax hotel room revenues and this is not a surprising conclusion. As Bonham et al. (1992) indicated, a rise of 5% in room rates is less than 1.5% of the total cost of a typical Hawaiian vacation. Therefore, noticeable adjustments to room demand are improbable. The tax is invisible to the tourist when planning a Vacation as the tax is added to room bills on checkout. Hawaii was not was not imposing or rising room tax during the period of time. The Undesirable adverse effect of Hawaiis tax on competitiveness would decrease to the extent that taxes were increasing in competing markets. John O. Spengler and Muzaffer Uysal(1989) in a study as: considerations in the hotel taxation process try to analysis the tax on hotel room. This paper is intended to put the notion of hotel taxation into perspective providing a framework of elements which tax experts and hospitality speci9lists deem important. Included tax elements consist of economic considerations, tax incidence, tax progressivity and equity, and tax exportability. These elements are also examined as part of.a process under conditions of inelastic and elastic demand. Finally, a brief discussion of taxation policy implications was provided. Given the importance .of the hotel tax to members of the tourism industry and policy makers, a synthesis of the key variables which influence the taxation process is paramount. This paper has explored these variables individually and in combination.It is hoped that this effort has furthered a better understanding of the hotel taxation process. This understanding, however, should be backed by reliable and relevant research. In specific, research should be conducted which addresses the First, the demand supply elasticitys for visitor destinations should be studied. Findings from this line of study will determine in general whether it is the visitor or the hotelier who bears the greater burden of the tax. This will. Provide answers to the question of tax incidence. Second, research should address questions relating to the income characteristics of visitors, the proportion of business travelers to tourists, and the economic consequences of the tax for tour operators, meeting planners and corporations. These questions concern the concept of tax equity and progressivity. Third, research is suggested regarding the exportability of a hotel tax. Studies addressing the percentage of hoteliers and employees who are local residents, and the percentage of hotel guests who are residents of the local community would be relevant. Last, questions concerning the use of funds derived from the tax must be answered. Resear ch should address whether funds used in the past for promotion and upgrading visitor attractions have increased visitor demand. In addition, the most appropriate and efficient use of funds should be addressed. With sufficient information supplied by research, and adherence to general guidelines in policy formation, legislators will be better able to make just and rational decisions concerning the hotel tax.E. Aguilo! et al. (2005) in a study as The short-term price effect of a tourist tax through a dynamic demand model for the Balearic Islands. The objective of this paper is to identify the markets sensitivity to price changes in travel-related services or groups of services, assuming that one of the main factors that influences travel decisions is the information on the destination that consumers receive. In order to include this effect, the study applies a combination of a diffusion model and a traditional economic utility theory model to tourists visiting the Balearic Islands · (Spain) from the United Kingdom, Germany, France and the Netherlands. The result shows that The effect of the tourist tax on tourism supplies has not been assessed. Richard M. bird (1992) in Taxing Tourism in Developing Countries show that in principle there is a strong economic case in many, countries for taxing tourism more than at present, but that the nature of the industry and administrative difficulties severely limit what can be done in practice. This analysis and a review of the fiscal instruments available to most developing countries suggest three main conclusions: first, more attention should be paid to introducing adequate charging Policies where possible: second, special taxes on hotel accommodation are generally the key to tourist taxation; and third, there is little reason to provide special incentives for investment in the tourist industry. According to Bonham, Carl and Byron Gangnes (1996) in Intervention Analysis with Co integrated Time Series: The Case of the Hawaii Hotel Room Tax. Room taxes are touted by proponents as a way to shift the local. tax burden to non-residents, while the travel industry claims the levies significantly harm their competitiveness. In this study, they analyze the effect on hotel revenues of the Hawaii room tax using time ·series intervention analysis. They specify a time series models of revenue behavior that captures the long-term co-integrating relationships among revenues and important income and relative price variables, as well as · other short-run dynamic influences. They also, estimate the effect on Hawaii hotel room revenues of the 5% Hawaii hotel room tax introduce d. in January 1987. The result show that no evidence of statistically significant tax impacts. · Fujii, Edwin, Mohammed Khaled and James Mak (1985) in a paper as The Exportability of Hotel Occupancy and Other Tourist Taxes attempt to examine the incidence and exportability of an ad valorem hotel room occupancy tax for Hawaii vis-a-vis alternative tourist taxes. The study employs a system approach and times series data (1961-1980. Results indicate that a hotel room tax is readily, though not fully, shifted/exported. It is more readily exported than similar taxes levied on excise/sales tax, since taxes levied on non-lodging expenditures also fall heavily on residents. Results also suggest that taxes imposed on tourist spending have a moderately large negative output effect on the visitor industry. Hiemstra, Stephen J. and Joseph A. Ismail (1992) In their study as Analysis of Room Taxes Levied on the Lodging Industry try to summarize a study of the impacts of room taxes on the lodging industry by (1) reporting the findings of Phase 1I of an overall study assessing the negative impacts on number of rooms rented of room taxes levied on the lodging industry, and (2) applying the price elasticity of market demand found inst~p 1 to the average amounts of room taxes paid, as measured in Phase I of the overall study. The elasticity measurement comes from a statistical model based on data from a national pro